medvisМедицинская визуализацияMedical Visualization1607-07632408-9516RDS-Media Ltd.10.24835/1607-0763-1116medvis-1116Research ArticleГОЛОВАHEADКомпьютерная томография при черепно-мозговой травме у младенцев и детей младшего возраста (обзор литературы)Computed tomography of traumatic brain injury in infants and young children (a literature review)https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6124-5410ЗайцеваЕ. С.ZaitcevaE. S.

Зайцева Екатерина Сергеевна – врач-рентгенолог отдела лучевых методов диагностикиТел.: +7-916-509-76-12

119180 Москва, ул. Большая Полянка, д. 22, 137

Ekaterina S. Zaitceva – radiologist of the department of radiation diagnosticsPhone: +7-916-509-76-12

119180, Moscow, Bol’shaya Polyanka str, 22, 137

katarina0594@mail.ruhttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-6349-5739МаматкуловА. Д.MamatkulovA. D.

Маматкулов Алишер Джахангирович – аспирант отделения нейрохирургии

119180 Москва, ул. Большая Полянка, д. 22

Alisher Dz. Mamatkulov – postgraduate student of the department of neurosurgery

119180, Moscow, Bol’shaya Polyanka str, 22

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3235-8854АхадовТ. А.AkhadovT. A.

Ахадов Толибджон Абдуллаевич – доктор мед. наук, профессор, руководитель отдела лучевых методов диагностики

119180 Москва, ул. Большая Полянка, д. 22

Tolibdzhon A. Akhadov – Doct. of Sci. (Med.), Professor, Head of radiology department

119180, Moscow, Bol’shaya Polyanka str, 22

НИИ неотложной детской хирургии и травматологии ДЗ г. МосквыРоссияClinical and Research Institute of Emergency Pediatric Surgery and TraumaRussian Federation2022150520222623957Copyright © Зайцева Е.С., Маматкулов А.Д., Ахадов Т.А., 20222022Зайцева Е.С., Маматкулов А.Д., Ахадов Т.А.Zaitceva E.S., Mamatkulov A.D., Akhadov T.A.Данная работа распространяется под лицензией Creative Commons Attribution 4.0.This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.https://medvis.rdsmedia.ru/jour/article/view/1116

Цель исследования: проанализировать последние исследования, относящиеся к вопросам применения компьютерной томографии (КТ) при черепно-мозговой травме (ЧМТ) у детей раннего возраста.Результаты. ЧМТ – одна из частых причин смерти и инвалидности у детей. Детская ЧМТ связана с рядом характеристик, отличающих ее от взрослых. Это обусловлено возрастными анатомо-физиологические различиями, зависящими от физического состояния ребенка и трудностями с неврологической оценкой у детей. Дети раннего возраста проявляют специфические патологические реакции на ЧМТ с четкими сопутствующими неврологическими проявлениями. В этом обзоре представлена важная информация о текущих аспектах использования КТ при всех видах изолированной тупой ЧМТ у детей в возрасте от рождения до 3 лет с учетом особенностей, соответствующих возрасту в условиях неотложной помощи. Хотя механизмы ЧМТ у раннего возраста аналогичны взрослым, визуальные проявления травм головы у детей имеют свои особенности из-за развивающегося мозга и свода черепа. Основная роль радиолога – определить и охарактеризовать тип и степень тяжести травмы головы, чтобы помочь правильному ведению пациента. Исходя из информации, полученной при КТ, зная механизм ЧМТ у младенцев и детей раннего возраста, радиологи играют ключевую роль как в диагностике, так и в выборе эффективного лечения и улучшении результатов лечения и исходов.Заключение. КТ головы с многоплановыми и 3D-реконструкциями в настоящее время заменила рентгенографию черепа при подозрения на ЧМТ и стала важнейшим диагностическим методом у пациентов с ЧМТ в условиях неотложной помощи. Рентгенограммы не добавляют дополнительной диагностической информации и могут быть исключены из исследования в случае проведения КТ с 3D-реконструкцией.

Objective. To analyze recent studies related to the use of computed tomography in traumatic brain injury in young children.Results. Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the most common causes of death and disability in children. Pediatric TBI has a number of characteristics different of adults. This is due to age-related anatomical and physiological differences depending on patient's physical condition and on problems with his/her neurological assessment. Young children demonstrate specific pathological reactions to TBI with clear concomitant neurological manifestations. The authors present an important information on current aspects of CT application for all types of isolated blunt TBI in children aged from birth to 3 years with consideration of age-appropriate characteristics and emergency condition. Although TBI mechanisms are similar in young children and adults, visual manifestations of head injury in children have their own specific features due to the developing brain and cranial vault. Radiologist's primary role is to identify and characterize the type and severity of head injury so as to assist the correct management of the patient. Using the information obtained from CT examination and knowing TBI mechanisms in infants and young children, a radiologist can play a key role both in diagnostics and in selection of effective care, thus improving clinical outcomes.Conclusion. Head CT with multifaceted and 3D reconstructions has now replaced X-ray examination of the skull in suspected TBI and has become the most important diagnostic technique in patients with TBI at emergency settings. Radiographs do not provide with additional diagnostic information and may be excluded from the examination, if CT with 3D reconstruction are planned to perform or has already been performed.

черепно-мозговая травма головыдетимладенцыкомпьютерная томография.traumatic brain injurychildreninfantscomputed tomographyReferencesВалиуллина С.А., Шарова Е.А. Заболеваемость детей черепно-мозговой травмой в российской федерации: эпидемиология и экономические аспекты. Казанский медицинский журнал. 2015; 96 (4): 581–587. https://doi.org/10.17750/KMJ2015-581Valiullina S.A., Sharova E.A. The incidence of traumatic brain injury in children in the Russian Federation: epidemiology and economic aspects. Kazanskij medicinskij zhurnal. 2015; 96 (4): 581–587. https://doi.org/10.17750/KMJ2015-581 (In Russian)John S.M., Kelly P., Vincent A. Patterns of structural head injury in children younger than 3 years: a ten-year review of 519 patients. J. Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2013; 74: 276–281. https://doi.org/10.1097/TA.0b013e318270d82eJohn S.M., Kelly P., Vincent A. Patterns of structural head injury in children younger than 3 years: a ten-year review of 519 patients. J. Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2013; 74: 276–281. https://doi.org/10.1097/TA.0b013e318270d82ePickett W., Streight S., Simpson K., Brison R.J. Injuries experienced by infant children: a population-based epidemiological analysis. Pediatrics. 2003; 111 (4, Pt 1): e365–370. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.111.4.e365Pickett W., Streight S., Simpson K., Brison R.J. Injuries experienced by infant children: a population-based epidemiological analysis. Pediatrics. 2003; 111 (4, Pt 1): e365–370. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.111.4.e365Валиуллина С.А., Рошаль Л.М., Альбицкий В.Ю., Семенова Ж.Б., Шарова Е.А. Черепно-мозговая травма у детей: эпидемиологические и социальные особенности. Актуальные проблемы социальной педиатрии. Социальная педиатрия. 2012; 22: 306–320.Valiullina S.A., Roshal' L.M., Al'bickij V.Ju., Semenova Zh.B., Sharova E.A. Traumatic brain injury in children: epidemiological and social characteristics. Actual problems of social pediatrics. Social'naja pediatrija. 2012; 22: 306–320. (In Russian)Kraus J.F., Rock A., Hemyari P. Brain injuries among infants, children, adolescents, and young adults. Am. J. Dis. Child. 1990; 144: 684–691. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.1990.02150300082022Kraus J.F., Rock A., Hemyari P. Brain injuries among infants, children, adolescents, and young adults. Am. J. Dis. Child. 1990; 144: 684–691. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.1990.02150300082022Kuppermann N., Holmes J.F., Dayan P.S. et al. Identification of children at very low risk of clinicallyimportant brain injuries after head trauma: a prospective cohort study. Lancet. 2009; 374: 1160–1170. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61558-0Kuppermann N., Holmes J.F., Dayan P.S. et al. Identification of children at very low risk of clinicallyimportant brain injuries after head trauma: a prospective cohort study. Lancet. 2009; 374: 1160–1170. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61558-0Chadwick D.L., Bertocci G., Castillo E. et al. Annual risk of death resulting from short falls among young children: less than 1 in 1 million. Pediatrics. 2008; 121: 1213–1224. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2007-2281Chadwick D.L., Bertocci G., Castillo E. et al. Annual risk of death resulting from short falls among young children: less than 1 in 1 million. Pediatrics. 2008; 121: 1213–1224. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2007-2281Plunkett J. Fatal pediatric head injuries caused by shortdistance falls. Am. J. Forensic. Med. Pathol. 2001; 22 (1): 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1097/00000433-200103000-00001Plunkett J. Fatal pediatric head injuries caused by shortdistance falls. Am. J. Forensic. Med. Pathol. 2001; 22 (1): 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1097/00000433-200103000-00001Cancelliere C., Coronado V.G., Taylor C.A., Xu L. Epidemiology of Isolated Versus Nonisolated Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Treated in Emergency Departments in the United States, 2006-2012: Sociodemographic Characteristics. J. Head Trauma Rehabil. 2017; 32 (4): E37–E4 6. https://doi.org/10.1097/HTR.0000000000000260Cancelliere C., Coronado V.G., Taylor C.A., Xu L. Epidemiology of Isolated Versus Nonisolated Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Treated in Emergency Departments in the United States, 2006-2012: Sociodemographic Characteristics. J. Head Trauma Rehabil. 2017; 32 (4): E37–E4 6. https://doi.org/10.1097/HTR.0000000000000260Thomas A.G., Hegde S.V., Dineen R.A., Jaspan T. Patterns of accidental craniocerebral injury occurring in early childhood. Arch. Dis. Child. 2013; 98: 787–792. https://doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2013-304267Thomas A.G., Hegde S.V., Dineen R.A., Jaspan T. Patterns of accidental craniocerebral injury occurring in early childhood. Arch. Dis. Child. 2013; 98: 787–792. https://doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2013-304267Hettler J., Greenes D.S. Can the initial history predict whether a child with a head injury has been abused? Pediatrics. 2003; 111: 602–607. https://doi.org/10.1542/pedsHettler J., Greenes D.S. Can the initial history predict whether a child with a head injury has been abused? Pediatrics. 2003; 111: 602–607. https://doi.org/10.1542/pedsRoyal College of Radiology and Paediatrics and Child Health. Standards for radiological investigations of suspected non-accidental injury. London, UK: Royal College of Radiology and Paediatrics and Child Health, 2008.Royal College of Radiology and Paediatrics and Child Health. Standards for radiological investigations of suspected non-accidental injury. London, UK: Royal College of Radiology and Paediatrics and Child Health, 2008.Williams R.A. Injuries in infants and small children resulting from witnessed and corroborated free falls. J. Trauma. 1991; 31: 1350–1352. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005373-199110000-00005Williams R.A. Injuries in infants and small children resulting from witnessed and corroborated free falls. J. Trauma. 1991; 31: 1350–1352. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005373-199110000-00005Рошаль Л.М., Валиуллина С.А., Шарова Е.А. Региональные эпидемиологические особенности черепно-мозговой травмы у детей в России в 2003–2014 годы. Проблемы социальной гигиены, здравоохранения и социальной медицины. 2019; 3 (27): 257–261.Roshal' L.M., Valiullina S.A., Sharova E.A. Regional epidemiological features of traumatic brain injury in children in Russia in 2003–2014. Problemy social'noj gigieny, zdravoohranenija i social'noj mediciny. 2019; 3 (27): 257–261. (In Russian)Keenan H.T., Runyan D.K., Marshall S.W. et al. A population-based study of inflicted traumatic brain injury in young children. JAMA. 2003; 290: 621–626. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.290.5.621Keenan H.T., Runyan D.K., Marshall S.W. et al. A population-based study of inflicted traumatic brain injury in young children. JAMA. 2003; 290: 621–626. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.290.5.621Корниенко В.Н., Лихтерман Л.Б. Рентгенологические методы диагностики черепно-мозговой травмы. В кн.: Клиническое руководство по черепно-мозговой травме / Под ред. А.Н. Коновалова, Л.Б. Лихтермана, А.Д. Потапова. М.: Антидор, 1998; 1: 472–510.Kornienko V.N., Lihterman L.B. X-ray methods for the diagnosis of traumatic brain injury. In: Clinical guidelines for traumatic brain injury / Eds A.N. Konovalova, L.B. Lihtermana, A.D. Potapova. M.: Antidor, 1998; 1: 472–510. (In Russian)Коновалов А.Н., Корниенко В.Н., Озерова В.И., Пронин И.Н. Нейрорентгенология детского возраста. М.: Антидор, 2001: 19–38, 291–322.Konovalov A.N., Kornienko V.N., Ozerova V.I., Pronin I.N. Pediatric neuroradiology. M.: Antidor, 2001: 19–38, 291–322. (In Russian)Рошаль Л.М., Семенова Ж.Б., Багаев В.Г. и др. Протокол оказания помощи пострадавшим детям с тяжелой изолированной и сочетанной черепномозго вой травмой на догоспитальном этапе: Методические рекомендации Департамента здравоохранения. Москва, 2008.Roshal' L.M., Semenova Zh.B., Bagaev V.G. et al. Protocol for rendering assistance to injured children with severe isolated and concomitant traumatic brain injury at the prehospital stage. Metodicheskie rekomendacii Departamenta zdravoohranenija. Mosow, 2008. (In Russian)Case M.E., Graham M.A., Handy T.C. et al. Position paper on fatal abusive head injuries in infants and young children. Am. J. Forensic Med. Pathol. 2001; 22:112–122. https://doi.org/10.1097/00000433-200106000-00002Case M.E., Graham M.A., Handy T.C. et al. Position paper on fatal abusive head injuries in infants and young children. Am. J. Forensic Med. Pathol. 2001; 22:112–122. https://doi.org/10.1097/00000433-200106000-00002Djientcheu V.P., Njamnshi A.K., Ongolo-Zolo P. et al. Grow skull fractures. Childs Nerv. Syst. 2006; 22: 721–725. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00381-005-0010-6Djientcheu V.P., Njamnshi A.K., Ongolo-Zolo P. et al. Grow skull fractures. Childs Nerv. Syst. 2006; 22: 721–725. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00381-005-0010-6Annual Child Maltreatment Report. Child maltreatment, 2012.Annual Child Maltreatment Report. Child maltreatment, 2012.Семенова Ж.Б., Мельников А.В., Саввина И.А., Лекманов А.У., Хачатрян В.А., Горелышев С.К. Рекомендации по лечению детей с черепно-мозговой травмой. Российский вестник детской хирургии, анестезиологии и реаниматологии. 2016; 6 (2): 112–131. https://doi.org/10.17816/psaic258Semenova Zh.B., Mel'nikov A.V., Savvina I.A., Lekmanov A.U., Hachatrjan V.A., Gorelyshev S.K. Recommendations for the treatment of children with traumatic brain injury. Rossijskij vestnik detskoj hirurgii, anesteziologii i reanimatologii. 2016; 6 (2): 112–131. https://doi.org/10.17816/psaic258 (In Russian)Bailey B.M., Liesemer K., Statler K.D. et al. Monitoring and prediction of intracranial hypertension in pediatric traumatic brain injury: Clinical factors and initial head computed tomography. J. Trauma Acute Care Surg 2012; 72: 263–270. https://doi.org/10.1097/TA.0b013e31822a9512Bailey B.M., Liesemer K., Statler K.D. et al. Monitoring and prediction of intracranial hypertension in pediatric traumatic brain injury: Clinical factors and initial head computed tomography. J. Trauma Acute Care Surg 2012; 72: 263–270. https://doi.org/10.1097/TA.0b013e31822a9512Levi L., Guilburd J.N., Linn S., Feinsod M. The association between skull fracture, intracranial pathology and outcome in pediatric head injury. Br. J. Neurosurg. 1991; 5: 617–625. https://doi.org/10.3109/02688699109002885Levi L., Guilburd J.N., Linn S., Feinsod M. The association between skull fracture, intracranial pathology and outcome in pediatric head injury. Br. J. Neurosurg. 1991; 5: 617–625. https://doi.org/10.3109/02688699109002885Stein S.C., Spettell C., Young G., Ross S.E. Delayed and progressive brain injury in closed-head trauma: Radiological demonstration. Neurosurgery. 1993; 32: 25–30. https://doi.org/10.1227/00006123-199301000-00004Stein S.C., Spettell C., Young G., Ross S.E. Delayed and progressive brain injury in closed-head trauma: Radiological demonstration. Neurosurgery. 1993; 32: 25–30. https://doi.org/10.1227/00006123-199301000-00004Savitsky E.A., Votey S.R. Current controversies in the management of minor pediatric head injuries. Am. J. Emerg. Med. 2000; 18(1): 96–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0735-6757(00)90060-3Savitsky E.A., Votey S.R. Current controversies in the management of minor pediatric head injuries. Am. J. Emerg. Med. 2000; 18(1): 96–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0735-6757(00)90060-3Потапов А.А., Лихтерман Л.Б. Доказательная нейтротравматология. М.: НИИ нейрохирургии им. H.H. Бурденко РАМН, 2003. 517 с.Potapov A.A., Lihterman L.B. Evidence-based neutrotraumatology. M.: NII nejrohirurgii im. N.N. Bur den ko RAMN, 2003. 517 p. (In Russian)Hollingworth W., Vavilala M.S., Jarvik J.G. et al. The use of repeated head computed tomography in pediatric blunt head trauma: factors predicting new and worsening brain injury. Pediatr. Crit. Care Med. 2007; 8 (4): 348–356. CEU quiz 357. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.PCC.0000270837.66217.3BHollingworth W., Vavilala M.S., Jarvik J.G. et al. The use of repeated head computed tomography in pediatric blunt head trauma: factors predicting new and worsening brain injury. Pediatr. Crit. Care Med. 2007; 8 (4): 348–356. CEU quiz 357. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.PCC.0000270837.66217.3BParslow R.C., Morris K.P., Tasker R.C. et al. UK Paediatric Traumatic Brain Injury Study Steering Group, et al. Epidemiology of traumatic brain injury in children receiving intensive care in the UK. Arch. Dis. Child. 2005; 90 (11): 1182–1187. https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.2005.072405Parslow R.C., Morris K.P., Tasker R.C. et al. UK Paediatric Traumatic Brain Injury Study Steering Group, et al. Epidemiology of traumatic brain injury in children receiving intensive care in the UK. Arch. Dis. Child. 2005; 90 (11): 1182–1187. https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.2005.072405Piteau S.J., Ward M.G., Barrowman N.J., Plint A.C. Clinical and radiographic characteristics associated with abusive and nonabusive head trauma: a systematic review. Pediatrics. 2012; 130: 315–323. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-1545Piteau S.J., Ward M.G., Barrowman N.J., Plint A.C. Clinical and radiographic characteristics associated with abusive and nonabusive head trauma: a systematic review. Pediatrics. 2012; 130: 315–323. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-1545McKeag H., Christian C.W., Rubin D. et al. Subdural hemorrhage in pediatric patients with enlargement of the subarachnoid spaces. J. Neurosurg. Pediatr. 2013; 11(4): 438–444. https://doi.org/10.3171/2012.12.PEDS12289McKeag H., Christian C.W., Rubin D. et al. Subdural hemorrhage in pediatric patients with enlargement of the subarachnoid spaces. J. Neurosurg. Pediatr. 2013; 11(4): 438–444. https://doi.org/10.3171/2012.12.PEDS12289Hsieh K.L-C., Zimmerman R.A., Kao H.W., Chen C-Y. Revisiting Neuroimaging of Abusive Head Trauma in Infants and Young Children. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2015; 5 (204): 944–952. https://doi.org/10.2214/ajr.14.13228Hsieh K.L-C., Zimmerman R.A., Kao H.W., Chen C-Y. Revisiting Neuroimaging of Abusive Head Trauma in Infants and Young Children. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2015; 5 (204): 944–952. https://doi.org/10.2214/ajr.14.13228Cancelliere C., Coronado V.G., Taylor C.A., Xu L. Epidemiology of Isolated Versus Nonisolated Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Treated in Emergency Departments in the United States, 2006-2012: Sociodemographic Characteristics. J. Head Trauma Rehabil. 2017; 32 (4): E37–E46. https://doi.org/10.1097/HTR.0000000000000260Cancelliere C., Coronado V.G., Taylor C.A., Xu L. Epidemiology of Isolated Versus Nonisolated Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Treated in Emergency Departments in the United States, 2006-2012: Sociodemographic Characteristics. J. Head Trauma Rehabil. 2017; 32 (4): E37–E46. https://doi.org/10.1097/HTR.0000000000000260Keenan H.T., Presson A.P., Clark A.E. et al. Longitudinal Developmental Outcomes after Traumatic Brain Injury in Young Children: Are Infants More Vulnerable Than Toddlers? J. Neurotrauma. 2019; 36(2): 282–292. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2018.5687Keenan H.T., Presson A.P., Clark A.E. et al. Longitudinal Developmental Outcomes after Traumatic Brain Injury in Young Children: Are Infants More Vulnerable Than Toddlers? J. Neurotrauma. 2019; 36(2): 282–292. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2018.5687Кравчук А.Д., Синбухова Е.В., Потапов А.А., Степанова Л.А., Лубнин А.Ю., Данилов Г.В. и др. Клиниконейропсихологическое исследование больных с черепно-мозговой травмой до и после реконструкции дефектов черепа. Акмеология. 2018, 4 (68): 71–82.Kravchuk A.D., Sinbuhova E.V., Potapov A.A., Stepanova L.A., Lubnin A.Ju., Danilov G.V. et al. Clinical and neuropsychological study of patients with traumatic brain injury before and after reconstruction of skull defects. Akmeologija. 2018, 4 (68): 71–82. (In Russian)Исхаков О.С., Потапов А.А., Шипилевский В.М. Взаимосвязь механизма травмы с видами повреждения мозга и исходами у детей с изолированной и сочетанной черепно-мозговой травмой. Журнал “Вопросы нейрохирургии” имени Н.Н. Бурденко. 2006; 2: 26.Ishakov O.S., Potapov A.A., Shipilevskij V.M. Inter relation of the mechanism of trauma with types of brain damage and outcomes in children with isolated and concomitant traumatic brain injury. Burdenko's Journal of Neurosurgery = Zhurnal “Voprosy neirokhirurgii” imeni N.N. Burdenko. 2006; 2: 26. (In Russian)Quayle K.S., Jaffe D.M., Kuppermann N. et al. Diagnostic Testing for Acute Head Injury in Children: When Are Head Computed Tomography and Skull Radiographs Indicated? Pediatrics. 1997; 99 (5): E11. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.99.5.e11Quayle K.S., Jaffe D.M., Kuppermann N. et al. Diagnostic Testing for Acute Head Injury in Children: When Are Head Computed Tomography and Skull Radiographs Indicated? Pediatrics. 1997; 99 (5): E11. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.99.5.e11Thompson A.K., Bertocci G., Rice W., Pierce M.C. Pediatric short-distance household falls: biomechanics and associated injury severity. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2011; 43: 143–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2010.07.020Thompson A.K., Bertocci G., Rice W., Pierce M.C. Pediatric short-distance household falls: biomechanics and associated injury severity. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2011; 43: 143–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2010.07.020Crowe L.M., Catroppa C., Anderson V., Babl F.E. Head injuries in children under 3 years. Injury. 2012; 43: 2141–2145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.injury.2012.07.195.Crowe L.M., Catroppa C., Anderson V., Babl F.E. Head injuries in children under 3 years. Injury. 2012; 43: 2141–2145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.injury.2012.07.195.Ibrahim N.G., Wood J., Margulies S.S., Christian C.W. Influence of age and fall type on head injuries in infants and toddlers. Int. J. Dev. Neurosci. 2012; 30: 201–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2011.10.007Ibrahim N.G., Wood J., Margulies S.S., Christian C.W. Influence of age and fall type on head injuries in infants and toddlers. Int. J. Dev. Neurosci. 2012; 30: 201–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2011.10.007Gülşen I., Ak H., Karadaş S. et al. Indications of brain computed tomography scan in children younger than 3 years of age with minor head trauma. Emerg. Med. Int. 2014; 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/248967Gülşen I., Ak H., Karadaş S. et al. Indications of brain computed tomography scan in children younger than 3 years of age with minor head trauma. Emerg. Med. Int. 2014; 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/248967Fishman Y., Gross I., Hashavya S. et al. Pediatricians as Case Managers Reduce the Exposure to Computerized Tomography in Children Experiencing Minor Head Trauma. Pediatr. Emerg. Care. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1097/PEC.0000000000002143Fishman Y., Gross I., Hashavya S. et al. Pediatricians as Case Managers Reduce the Exposure to Computerized Tomography in Children Experiencing Minor Head Trauma. Pediatr. Emerg. Care. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1097/PEC.0000000000002143Idriz S., Patel J., Renani S.A. et al. CT of normal developmental and variant anatomy of the pediatric skull: Distinguishing trauma from normality. RadioGraphics. 2015; 35 (5): 1585–1601. https://doi.org/10.1148/rg.2015140177Idriz S., Patel J., Renani S.A. et al. CT of normal developmental and variant anatomy of the pediatric skull: Distinguishing trauma from normality. RadioGraphics. 2015; 35 (5): 1585–1601. https://doi.org/10.1148/rg.2015140177Ciurea A.V., Gorgan M.R., Tascu A. et al. Traumatic brain injury in infants and toddlers, 0-3 years old. J. Med. Life. 2011; 4 (3): 234–243.Ciurea A.V., Gorgan M.R., Tascu A. et al. Traumatic brain injury in infants and toddlers, 0-3 years old. J. Med. Life. 2011; 4 (3): 234–243.Лихтерман Л.Б. Классификация черепно-мозговой травмы. Часть II. Современные принципы классификации ЧМТ. Судебная медицина. 2015; 1 (3): 37–48. https://doi.org/10.19048/2411-8729-2015-1-3-37-48Lihterman L.B. Classification of traumatic brain injury. Part II. Modern principles of TBI classification. Sudebnaja medicina; 2015; 1(3): 37–48. https://doi.org/10.19048/2411-8729-2015-1-3-37-48 (In Russian)Arrey E.N., Kerr M.L., Fletcher S. et al. Linear nondisplaced skull fractures in children: who should be observed or admitted? J. Neurosurg. Pediatr. 2015; 16: 703–708. https://doi.org/10.3171/2015.4.PEDS1545Arrey E.N., Kerr M.L., Fletcher S. et al. Linear nondisplaced skull fractures in children: who should be observed or admitted? J. Neurosurg. Pediatr. 2015; 16: 703–708. https://doi.org/10.3171/2015.4.PEDS1545Sun Q., Shi Y., Zhang F. Pediatric skull fractures and intracranial injuries. Exp. Ther. Med. 2017; 14 (3): 1871–1874. https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2017.4715Sun Q., Shi Y., Zhang F. Pediatric skull fractures and intracranial injuries. Exp. Ther. Med. 2017; 14 (3): 1871–1874. https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2017.4715Clauser L., Dallera V., Sarti E., Tieghi R. Frontobasilar fractures in children. Childs Nerv. Syst. 2004; 20: 168–175. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00381-003-0868-0Clauser L., Dallera V., Sarti E., Tieghi R. Frontobasilar fractures in children. Childs Nerv. Syst. 2004; 20: 168–175. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00381-003-0868-0Powell E.C., Atabaki S.M., Wootton-Gorges S. et al. Isolated linear skull fractures in children with blunt head trauma. Pediatrics. 2015; 135(4): e851–857. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2014-2858Powell E.C., Atabaki S.M., Wootton-Gorges S. et al. Isolated linear skull fractures in children with blunt head trauma. Pediatrics. 2015; 135(4): e851–857. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2014-2858American College of Radiology. Appropriateness Criteria for head trauma in children, 2014.American College of Radiology. Appropriateness Criteria for head trauma in children, 2014.Sanchez T., Stewart D., Walvick M., Swischuk L. Skull fracture vs. accessory sutures: how can we tell the difference? Emerg. Radiol. 2010; 17 (5): 413–418. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10140-010-0877-8Sanchez T., Stewart D., Walvick M., Swischuk L. Skull fracture vs. accessory sutures: how can we tell the difference? Emerg. Radiol. 2010; 17 (5): 413–418. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10140-010-0877-8Araki T., Yokota H., Morita A. Pediatric Traumatic Brain Injury: Characteristic Features, Diagnosis, and Management. Neurol. Med. Chir. (Tokyo). 2017; 57 (2): 82–93. https://doi.org/10.2176/nmc.ra.2016-0191Araki T., Yokota H., Morita A. Pediatric Traumatic Brain Injury: Characteristic Features, Diagnosis, and Management. Neurol. Med. Chir. (Tokyo). 2017; 57 (2): 82–93. https://doi.org/10.2176/nmc.ra.2016-0191Langford S., Panigrahy A., Narayanan S. et al. Multiplanar reconstructed CT images increased depiction of intracranial hemorrhages in pediatric head trauma. Neuroradiology. 2015; 57(12): 1263–1268. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00234-015-1584-7Langford S., Panigrahy A., Narayanan S. et al. Multiplanar reconstructed CT images increased depiction of intracranial hemorrhages in pediatric head trauma. Neuroradiology. 2015; 57(12): 1263–1268. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00234-015-1584-7Culotta P.A., Crowe J.E., Tran Q.A. et al. Performance of computed tomography of the head to evaluate for skull fractures in infants with suspected non-accidental trauma. Pediatr. Radiol. 2017; 47(1): 74–81. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00247-016-3707-7Culotta P.A., Crowe J.E., Tran Q.A. et al. Performance of computed tomography of the head to evaluate for skull fractures in infants with suspected non-accidental trauma. Pediatr. Radiol. 2017; 47(1): 74–81. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00247-016-3707-7Laskey A.L., Holsti M., Runyan D.K., Socolar R.R. Occult head trauma in young suspected victims of physical abuse. J. Pediatr. 2004; 144: 719–722. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2004.02.023Laskey A.L., Holsti M., Runyan D.K., Socolar R.R. Occult head trauma in young suspected victims of physical abuse. J. Pediatr. 2004; 144: 719–722. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2004.02.023Vitali A.M., Steinbok P. Depressed skull fracture and epidural hematoma from head fixation with pins for craniotomy in children. Childs Nerv. Syst. 2008; 24: 917–923. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00381-008-0621-9Vitali A.M., Steinbok P. Depressed skull fracture and epidural hematoma from head fixation with pins for craniotomy in children. Childs Nerv. Syst. 2008; 24: 917–923. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00381-008-0621-9Orman G., Wagner M.W., Seeburg D. et al. Pediatric skull fracture diagnosis: should 3D CT reconstructions be added as routine imaging? J. Neurosurg. Pediatr. 2015; 16: 426–431. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00381-008-0621-9Orman G., Wagner M.W., Seeburg D. et al. Pediatric skull fracture diagnosis: should 3D CT reconstructions be added as routine imaging? J. Neurosurg. Pediatr. 2015; 16: 426–431. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00381-008-0621-9Zergham Z., Morris A.M., Paw R. Ping-pong fracture. Emerg. Med. J. 2007; 24 (10): 731–735. https://doi.org/10.1136/emj.2006.043570Zergham Z., Morris A.M., Paw R. Ping-pong fracture. Emerg. Med. J. 2007; 24 (10): 731–735. https://doi.org/10.1136/emj.2006.043570Kralik S.F., Finke W., Wu I.C. et al. Radiologic head CT interpretation errors in pediatric abusive and non-abusive head trauma patients. Pediatr. Radiol. 2017; 47 (8): 942–951. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00247-017-3872-3Kralik S.F., Finke W., Wu I.C. et al. Radiologic head CT interpretation errors in pediatric abusive and non-abusive head trauma patients. Pediatr. Radiol. 2017; 47 (8): 942–951. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00247-017-3872-3Silva J.B., João A., Miranda N. Ping-Pong Fracture in Newborn: A Rare Diagnosis. Acta Med. Port. 2019; 32 (7–8): 549. https://doi.org/10.20344/amp.10726Silva J.B., João A., Miranda N. Ping-Pong Fracture in Newborn: A Rare Diagnosis. Acta Med. Port. 2019; 32 (7–8): 549. https://doi.org/10.20344/amp.10726Selassie A.W., Borg K., Busch C., Russell W.S. Abusive head trauma in young children: a population-based study. J. Trauma Nurs. 2014; 21 (2): 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1097/JTN.0000000000000038Selassie A.W., Borg K., Busch C., Russell W.S. Abusive head trauma in young children: a population-based study. J. Trauma Nurs. 2014; 21 (2): 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1097/JTN.0000000000000038Ellingson K.D., Leventhal J.M., Weiss H.B. Using hospital discharge data to track inflicted traumatic brain injury. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2008; 34 (4): 157–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2007.12.021Ellingson K.D., Leventhal J.M., Weiss H.B. Using hospital discharge data to track inflicted traumatic brain injury. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2008; 34 (4): 157–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2007.12.021Singh I., Rohilla S., Siddiqui S.A., Kumar P. Growing skull fractures: guidelines for early diagnosis and surgical management. Childs Nerv. Syst. 2016; 32 (6): 1117–1122. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00381-016-3061-ySingh I., Rohilla S., Siddiqui S.A., Kumar P. Growing skull fractures: guidelines for early diagnosis and surgical management. Childs Nerv. Syst. 2016; 32 (6): 1117–1122. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00381-016-3061-yTamada I., Ihara S., Hasegawa Y., Aoki M. Surgical treatment of growing skull fracture: technical aspects of cranial bone reconstruction. J. Craniofac. Surg. 2019; 30 (1): 61–65. https://doi.org/10.1097/SCS.0000000000004949Tamada I., Ihara S., Hasegawa Y., Aoki M. Surgical treatment of growing skull fracture: technical aspects of cranial bone reconstruction. J. Craniofac. Surg. 2019; 30 (1): 61–65. https://doi.org/10.1097/SCS.0000000000004949Prasad G.L., Gupta D.K., Mahapatra A.K. et al. Surgical results of growing skull fractures in children: a single center study of 43 cases. Childs Nerv. Syst. 2015; 31: 269–277. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00381-014-2529-xPrasad G.L., Gupta D.K., Mahapatra A.K. et al. Surgical results of growing skull fractures in children: a single center study of 43 cases. Childs Nerv. Syst. 2015; 31: 269–277. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00381-014-2529-xNixon J.N., Soares B.P. Imaging of abusive head trauma: a review and update. Curr. Radiol. Rep. 2016; 4: 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40134-015-0136-6Nixon J.N., Soares B.P. Imaging of abusive head trauma: a review and update. Curr. Radiol. Rep. 2016; 4: 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40134-015-0136-6Hinds T., Shalaby-Rana E. The role of neuroimaging in the evaluation of abusive head trauma. J. Pediatr. Neuroradiol. 2016; 5: 38–44. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0036-1584283Hinds T., Shalaby-Rana E. The role of neuroimaging in the evaluation of abusive head trauma. J. Pediatr. Neuroradiol. 2016; 5: 38–44. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0036-1584283Flom L., Fromkin J., Panigrahy A. et al. Development of a screening MRI for infants at risk for abusive head trauma. Pediatr. Radiol. 2016; 46 (4): 519–526. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00247-015-3500-zFlom L., Fromkin J., Panigrahy A. et al. Development of a screening MRI for infants at risk for abusive head trauma. Pediatr. Radiol. 2016; 46 (4): 519–526. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00247-015-3500-zColbert C.A., Holshouser B.A., Aaen G.S. et al. Value of cerebral microhemorrhages detected with susceptibility-weighted MR Imaging for prediction of long-term outcome in children with nonaccidental trauma. Radiology. 2010; 256 (3): 898–905. https://doi.org/10.1148/radiol.10091842Colbert C.A., Holshouser B.A., Aaen G.S. et al. Value of cerebral microhemorrhages detected with susceptibility-weighted MR Imaging for prediction of long-term outcome in children with nonaccidental trauma. Radiology. 2010; 256 (3): 898–905. https://doi.org/10.1148/radiol.10091842Vezina G. Assessment of the nature and age of subdural collections in nonaccidental head injury with CT and MRI. Pediatr. Radiol. 2009; 39: 586–590. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00247-009-1212-yVezina G. Assessment of the nature and age of subdural collections in nonaccidental head injury with CT and MRI. Pediatr. Radiol. 2009; 39: 586–590. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00247-009-1212-yRubin D.M., Christian C.W., Bilaniuk L.T. et al. Occult head injury in high-risk abused children. Pediatrics. 2003; 111 (6 Pt 1): 1382–1386. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.111.6.1382Rubin D.M., Christian C.W., Bilaniuk L.T. et al. Occult head injury in high-risk abused children. Pediatrics. 2003; 111 (6 Pt 1): 1382–1386. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.111.6.1382Alhelali I., Stewart T.C., Foster J. et al. Basal skull fractures are associated with mortality in pediatric severe traumatic brain injury. J. Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2015; 78: 1155–1161. https://doi.org/10.1097/TA.0000000000000662Alhelali I., Stewart T.C., Foster J. et al. Basal skull fractures are associated with mortality in pediatric severe traumatic brain injury. J. Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2015; 78: 1155–1161. https://doi.org/10.1097/TA.0000000000000662Nigrovic L.E., Kuppermann N. Children With Minor Blunt Head Trauma Presenting to the Emergency Department. Pediatrics. 2019; 144 (6): e20191495. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2019-1495Nigrovic L.E., Kuppermann N. Children With Minor Blunt Head Trauma Presenting to the Emergency Department. Pediatrics. 2019; 144 (6): e20191495. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2019-1495Martin A., Paddock M., Johns C.S. et al. Avoiding skull radiographs in infants with suspected inflicted injury who also undergo head CT: “a no-brainer?” Eur. Radiol. 2020; 30 (3): 1480–1487. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00330-019-06579-wMartin A., Paddock M., Johns C.S. et al. Avoiding skull radiographs in infants with suspected inflicted injury who also undergo head CT: “a no-brainer?” Eur. Radiol. 2020; 30 (3): 1480–1487. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00330-019-06579-wGean A.D., Fischbein N.J., Purcell D.D. et al. Benign anterior temporal epidural hematoma: indolent lesion with a characteristic CT imaging appearance after blunt head trauma. Radiology. 2010; 257 (1): 212–218. https://doi.org/10.1148/radiol.10092075Gean A.D., Fischbein N.J., Purcell D.D. et al. Benign anterior temporal epidural hematoma: indolent lesion with a characteristic CT imaging appearance after blunt head trauma. Radiology. 2010; 257 (1): 212–218. https://doi.org/10.1148/radiol.10092075Parizel P.M., Van Goethem J.W., Ozsarlak O. et al. New developments in the neuroradiological diagnosis of craniocerebral trauma. Eur. Radiol. 2005; 15 (3): 569–581. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00330-004-2558-zParizel P.M., Van Goethem J.W., Ozsarlak O. et al. New developments in the neuroradiological diagnosis of craniocerebral trauma. Eur. Radiol. 2005; 15 (3): 569–581. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00330-004-2558-zDuhaime A.C., Alario A.J., Lewander W.J. et al. Head injury in very young children: mechanisms, injury types, and ophthalmologic findings in 100 hospitalized patients younger than 2 years of age. Pediatrics. 1992; 90 (2, Pt 1): 179–185.Duhaime A.C., Alario A.J., Lewander W.J. et al. Head injury in very young children: mechanisms, injury types, and ophthalmologic findings in 100 hospitalized patients younger than 2 years of age. Pediatrics. 1992; 90 (2, Pt 1): 179–185.Ewing-Cobbs L., Prasad M., Kramer L. et al. Acute neuroradiologic findings in young children with inflicted or noninflicted traumatic brain injury. Childs Nerv. Syst. 2000; 16 (1): 25–33; discussion 34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s003810050006Ewing-Cobbs L., Prasad M., Kramer L. et al. Acute neuroradiologic findings in young children with inflicted or noninflicted traumatic brain injury. Childs Nerv. Syst. 2000; 16 (1): 25–33; discussion 34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s003810050006Cox L.A. The shaken baby syndrome: diagnosis using CT and MRI. Radiol. Technol. 1996; 67 (6): 513–520.Cox L.A. The shaken baby syndrome: diagnosis using CT and MRI. Radiol. Technol. 1996; 67 (6): 513–520.Datta S., Stoodley N., Jayawant S. et al. Neuroradiological aspects of subdural haemorrhages. Arch. Dis. Child. 2005; 90: 947–951. https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.2002.021154Datta S., Stoodley N., Jayawant S. et al. Neuroradiological aspects of subdural haemorrhages. Arch. Dis. Child. 2005; 90: 947–951. https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.2002.021154Koegel C., McCallum R., Greenhill M. et al. Imaging of Traumatic Intracranial Hemorrhage. J. Am. Osteopath. Coll. Radiol. 2019; 8 (3): 13–20.Koegel C., McCallum R., Greenhill M. et al. Imaging of Traumatic Intracranial Hemorrhage. J. Am. Osteopath. Coll. Radiol. 2019; 8 (3): 13–20.Strub W.M., Leach J.L., Tomsick T., Vagal A. Overnight preliminary head CT interpretations provided by residents: locations of misidentified intracranial hemorrhage. Am. J. Neuroradiol. 2007; 28 (9): 1679–1682. https://doi.org/10.3174/ajnr.A0653Strub W.M., Leach J.L., Tomsick T., Vagal A. Overnight preliminary head CT interpretations provided by residents: locations of misidentified intracranial hemorrhage. Am. J. Neuroradiol. 2007; 28 (9): 1679–1682. https://doi.org/10.3174/ajnr.A0653Aminmansour B., Ghorbani A., Sharifi D. et al. Cerebral vasospasm following traumatic subarachnoid hemorrhage. J. Res. Med. Sci. 2009; 14: 343–348.Aminmansour B., Ghorbani A., Sharifi D. et al. Cerebral vasospasm following traumatic subarachnoid hemorrhage. J. Res. Med. Sci. 2009; 14: 343–348.Bakker N.A., Groen R.J., Foumani M. et al. Appreciation of CT-negative, lumbar puncture-positive subarachnoid haemorrhage: risk factors for presence of aneurysms and diagnostic yield of imaging. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry. 2014; 85: 885–888. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2013-305955Bakker N.A., Groen R.J., Foumani M. et al. Appreciation of CT-negative, lumbar puncture-positive subarachnoid haemorrhage: risk factors for presence of aneurysms and diagnostic yield of imaging. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry. 2014; 85: 885–888. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2013-305955Backes D., Rinkel G.J., Kemperman H. et al. Timedependent test characteristics of head computed tomography in patients suspected of nontraumatic subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke. 2012; 43: 2115–2119. https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.112.658880Backes D., Rinkel G.J., Kemperman H. et al. Timedependent test characteristics of head computed tomography in patients suspected of nontraumatic subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke. 2012; 43: 2115–2119. https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.112.658880Marder C.P., Narla V., Fink J.R. et al. Subarachnoid hemorrhage: beyond aneurysms. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2014; 202: 25–37. https://doi.org/10.2214/AJR.12.9749Marder C.P., Narla V., Fink J.R. et al. Subarachnoid hemorrhage: beyond aneurysms. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2014; 202: 25–37. https://doi.org/10.2214/AJR.12.9749Blok K.M., Rinkel G.J., Majoie C.B. et al. CT within 6 hours of headache onset to rule out subarachnoid hemorrhage in nonacademic hospitals Neurology. 2015; 84: 1927–1932. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000001562Blok K.M., Rinkel G.J., Majoie C.B. et al. CT within 6 hours of headache onset to rule out subarachnoid hemorrhage in nonacademic hospitals Neurology. 2015; 84: 1927–1932. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000001562Mata-Mbemba D., Mugikura S., Nakagawa A. et al. Traumatic midline subarachnoid hemorrhage on initial computed tomography as a marker of severe diffuse axonal injury. J. Neurosurg. 2018; 129 (5): 1317–1324. https://doi.org/10.3171/2017.6Mata-Mbemba D., Mugikura S., Nakagawa A. et al. Traumatic midline subarachnoid hemorrhage on initial computed tomography as a marker of severe diffuse axonal injury. J. Neurosurg. 2018; 129 (5): 1317–1324. https://doi.org/10.3171/2017.6Heit J.J., Iv M., Wintermark M. Imaging of intracranial hemorrhage. J. Stroke. 2017; 19 (1): 11–27. https://doi.org/10.5853/jos.2016.00563Heit J.J., Iv M., Wintermark M. Imaging of intracranial hemorrhage. J. Stroke. 2017; 19 (1): 11–27. https://doi.org/10.5853/jos.2016.00563Chieregato A., Fainardi E., Morselli-Labate A.M. et al. Factors associated with neurological outcome and lesion progression in traumatic subarachnoid hemorrhage patients. Neurosurgery. 56 (4): 671–680. https://doi.org/10.1227/01.neu.0000156200.76331.7aChieregato A., Fainardi E., Morselli-Labate A.M. et al. Factors associated with neurological outcome and lesion progression in traumatic subarachnoid hemorrhage patients. Neurosurgery. 56 (4): 671–680. https://doi.org/10.1227/01.neu.0000156200.76331.7aCohn E.M. Neuroradiology. 3rd ed., The Requisites. Neuroophthalmology. 2011; 35 (1): 55. https://doi.org/10.3109/01658107.2010.539764Cohn E.M. Neuroradiology. 3rd ed., The Requisites. Neuroophthalmology. 2011; 35 (1): 55. https://doi.org/10.3109/01658107.2010.539764Wei S.C., Ulmer S., Lev M.H. et al. Value of coronal reformations in the CT evaluation of acute head trauma. Am. J. Neuroradiol. 2010; 31 (2): 334–339. https://doi.org/10.3174/ajnr.A1824Wei S.C., Ulmer S., Lev M.H. et al. Value of coronal reformations in the CT evaluation of acute head trauma. Am. J. Neuroradiol. 2010; 31 (2): 334–339. https://doi.org/10.3174/ajnr.A1824Currie S., Saleem N., Straiton J.A. et al. Imaging assessment of traumatic brain injury. Postgrad. Med. J. 2016; 92 (1083): 41–50. https://doi.org/10.1136/postgradmedj-2014-133211Currie S., Saleem N., Straiton J.A. et al. Imaging assessment of traumatic brain injury. Postgrad. Med. J. 2016; 92 (1083): 41–50. https://doi.org/10.1136/postgradmedj-2014-133211Buttram S.D., Garcia-Filion P., Miller J. et al. Computed tomography vs magnetic resonance imaging for identifying acute lesions in pediatric traumatic brain injury. Hosp. Pediatr. 2015; 5(2): 79–84. https://doi.org/10.1542/hpeds.2014-0094Buttram S.D., Garcia-Filion P., Miller J. et al. Computed tomography vs magnetic resonance imaging for identifying acute lesions in pediatric traumatic brain injury. Hosp. Pediatr. 2015; 5(2): 79–84. https://doi.org/10.1542/hpeds.2014-0094Wu Z., Li S., Lei J. et al. Evaluation of traumatic subarachnoid hemorrhage using susceptibility-weighted imaging. Am. J. Neuroradiol. 2010; 31 (7): 1302–1310. https://doi.org/10.3174/ajnr.A2022Wu Z., Li S., Lei J. et al. Evaluation of traumatic subarachnoid hemorrhage using susceptibility-weighted imaging. Am. J. Neuroradiol. 2010; 31 (7): 1302–1310. https://doi.org/10.3174/ajnr.A2022Hallevi H., Dar N.S., Barreto A.D. et al. The IVH score: a novel tool for estimating intraventricular hemorrhage volume: clinical and research implications. Crit. Care Med. 2009; 37: 969–974, e1. https://doi.org/10.1097/CCM.0b013e318198683aHallevi H., Dar N.S., Barreto A.D. et al. The IVH score: a novel tool for estimating intraventricular hemorrhage volume: clinical and research implications. Crit. Care Med. 2009; 37: 969–974, e1. https://doi.org/10.1097/CCM.0b013e318198683aLichenstein R., Glass T.F., Quayle K.S. et al. Traumatic brain injury study group of the pediatric emergency care applied research network (PECARN): Presentations and outcomes of children with intraventricular hemorrhages after blunt head trauma. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 2012; 166: 725–731. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpediatrics.2011.1919Lichenstein R., Glass T.F., Quayle K.S. et al. Traumatic brain injury study group of the pediatric emergency care applied research network (PECARN): Presentations and outcomes of children with intraventricular hemorrhages after blunt head trauma. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 2012; 166: 725–731. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpediatrics.2011.1919Martin R.M., Wright M.J., Lutkenhoff E.S. et al. Traumatic hemorrhagic brain injury: impact of location and resorption on cognitive outcome. J. Neurosurg. 2017; 126 (3): 796–804. https://doi.org/10.3171/2016.3.JNS151781Martin R.M., Wright M.J., Lutkenhoff E.S. et al. Traumatic hemorrhagic brain injury: impact of location and resorption on cognitive outcome. J. Neurosurg. 2017; 126 (3): 796–804. https://doi.org/10.3171/2016.3.JNS151781Maas A.I., Stocchetti N., Bullock R. Moderate and severe traumatic brain injury in adults. Lancet Neurol. 2008; 7(8): 728–741. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(08)70164-9Maas A.I., Stocchetti N., Bullock R. Moderate and severe traumatic brain injury in adults. Lancet Neurol. 2008; 7(8): 728–741. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(08)70164-9Narayan R.K., Maas A.I., Servadei F. et al. Progression of traumatic intracerebral hemorrhage: a prospective observational study. J. Neurotrauma. 2008; 25 (6): 629–639. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2007.0385Narayan R.K., Maas A.I., Servadei F. et al. Progression of traumatic intracerebral hemorrhage: a prospective observational study. J. Neurotrauma. 2008; 25 (6): 629–639. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2007.0385Wells R.G., Vetter C., Laund P. Intracranial hemorrhage in children younger than 3 years: prediction of intent. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 2002; 156 (3): 252–257. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.156.3.252Wells R.G., Vetter C., Laund P. Intracranial hemorrhage in children younger than 3 years: prediction of intent. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 2002; 156 (3): 252–257. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.156.3.252Alahmadi H., Vachhrajani S., Cusimano M.D. The natural history of brain contusion: an analysis of radiological and clinical progression. J. Neurosurg. 2010; 112 (5): 1139–1145. https://doi.org/10.3171/2009.5.JNS081369Alahmadi H., Vachhrajani S., Cusimano M.D. The natural history of brain contusion: an analysis of radiological and clinical progression. J. Neurosurg. 2010; 112 (5): 1139–1145. https://doi.org/10.3171/2009.5.JNS081369Kurland D., Hong C., Aarabi B. et al. Hemorrhagic progression of a contusion after traumatic brain injury: a review. J. Neurotrauma. 2012; 29 (1): 19–31. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2011.2122Kurland D., Hong C., Aarabi B. et al. Hemorrhagic progression of a contusion after traumatic brain injury: a review. J. Neurotrauma. 2012; 29 (1): 19–31. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2011.2122Lolli V., Pezzullo M., Delpierre I., Sadeghi N. MDCT imaging of traumatic brain injury. Br. J. Radiol. 2016; 89 (1061): 20150849. https://doi.org/10.1259/bjr.20150849Lolli V., Pezzullo M., Delpierre I., Sadeghi N. MDCT imaging of traumatic brain injury. Br. J. Radiol. 2016; 89 (1061): 20150849. https://doi.org/10.1259/bjr.20150849Kemp A.M., Jaspan T., Griffiths J. et al. Neuroimaging: what neuroradiological features distinguish abusive from non-abusive head trauma? A systematic review. Arch. Dis. Child. 2011; 96 (12): 1103–1112. https://doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2011-300630Kemp A.M., Jaspan T., Griffiths J. et al. Neuroimaging: what neuroradiological features distinguish abusive from non-abusive head trauma? A systematic review. Arch. Dis. Child. 2011; 96 (12): 1103–1112. https://doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2011-300630Palifka L.A., Frasier L.D., Metzger R.R., Hedlund G.L. Parenchymal Brain Laceration as a Predictor of Abusive Head Trauma. Am. J. Neuroradiol. 2016; 37 (1): 163–168. https://doi.org/10.3174/ajnr.A4519Palifka L.A., Frasier L.D., Metzger R.R., Hedlund G.L. Parenchymal Brain Laceration as a Predictor of Abusive Head Trauma. Am. J. Neuroradiol. 2016; 37 (1): 163–168. https://doi.org/10.3174/ajnr.A4519Mutch C.A., Talbott J.F., Gean A. Imaging Evaluation of Acute Traumatic Brain Injury. Neurosurg. Clin. N. Am. 2016; 27 (4): 409–439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nec.2016.05.011Mutch C.A., Talbott J.F., Gean A. Imaging Evaluation of Acute Traumatic Brain Injury. Neurosurg. Clin. N. Am. 2016; 27 (4): 409–439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nec.2016.05.011Parizel P.M., Ozsarlak, Van Goethem J.W. et al. Imaging findings in diffuse axonal injury after closed head trauma. Eur. Radiol. 1998; 8 (6): 960–965. https://doi.org/10.1007/s003300050496Parizel P.M., Ozsarlak, Van Goethem J.W. et al. Imaging findings in diffuse axonal injury after closed head trauma. Eur. Radiol. 1998; 8 (6): 960–965. https://doi.org/10.1007/s003300050496Wasserman J.R., Smirniotopoulos J.G. Diffuse Axonal Injury Imaging and Diagnosis. Medscape, 2021.Wasserman J.R., Smirniotopoulos J.G. Diffuse Axonal Injury Imaging and Diagnosis. Medscape, 2021.Davceva N., Sivevski A., Basheska N. Traumatic axonal injury, a clinical-pathological correlation. J. Forensic. Leg. Med. 2017; 48: 35–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jflm.2017.04.004Davceva N., Sivevski A., Basheska N. Traumatic axonal injury, a clinical-pathological correlation. J. Forensic. Leg. Med. 2017; 48: 35–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jflm.2017.04.004Greenberg S.M., Vernooij M.W., Cordonnier C. et al. Cerebral microbleeds: a guide to detection and interpretation. Lancet Neurol. 2009; 8: 165–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(09)70013-4Greenberg S.M., Vernooij M.W., Cordonnier C. et al. Cerebral microbleeds: a guide to detection and interpretation. Lancet Neurol. 2009; 8: 165–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(09)70013-4Mata-Mbemba D., Mugikura S., Nakagawa A. et al. Intraventricular hemorrhage on initial computed tomography as marker of diffuse axonal injury after traumatic brain injury. J. Neurotrauma. 2015; 32 (5): 359–365. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2014.3453Mata-Mbemba D., Mugikura S., Nakagawa A. et al. Intraventricular hemorrhage on initial computed tomography as marker of diffuse axonal injury after traumatic brain injury. J. Neurotrauma. 2015; 32 (5): 359–365. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2014.3453Nandigam R.N., Viswanathan A., Delgado P. et al. MR imaging detection of cerebral microbleeds: effect of susceptibility-weighted imaging, section thickness, and field strength. Am. J. Neuroradiol. 2009; 30: 338–343. https://doi.org/10.3174/ajnr.A1355Nandigam R.N., Viswanathan A., Delgado P. et al. MR imaging detection of cerebral microbleeds: effect of susceptibility-weighted imaging, section thickness, and field strength. Am. J. Neuroradiol. 2009; 30: 338–343. https://doi.org/10.3174/ajnr.A1355Hadley M.N., Sonntag V.K., Rekate H.L., Murphy A. The infant whiplash-shake injury syndrome: a clinical and pathological study. Neurosurgery. 1989; 24: 536–540. https://doi.org/10.1227/00006123-198904000-00008Hadley M.N., Sonntag V.K., Rekate H.L., Murphy A. The infant whiplash-shake injury syndrome: a clinical and pathological study. Neurosurgery. 1989; 24: 536–540. https://doi.org/10.1227/00006123-198904000-00008Kinney H.C., Armstrong D.D. Perinatal neuropathology. In: Graham D.I., Lantos P.L., eds. Green-field's neuropathology 7th ed. London, UK: Arnold, 2002: 519–606.Kinney H.C., Armstrong D.D. Perinatal neuropathology. In: Graham D.I., Lantos P.L., eds. Green-field's neuropathology 7th ed. London, UK: Arnold, 2002: 519–606.Adelson P.D., Ragheb J., Kanev P. et al. Phase II clinical trial of moderate hypothermia after severe traumatic brain injury in children. Neurosurgery. 2005; 56 (4): 740–754. https://doi.org/10.1227/01.NEU.0000156471.50726.26Adelson P.D., Ragheb J., Kanev P. et al. Phase II clinical trial of moderate hypothermia after severe traumatic brain injury in children. Neurosurgery. 2005; 56 (4): 740–754. https://doi.org/10.1227/01.NEU.0000156471.50726.26Byard R.W., Bhatia K.D., Reilly PL, Vink R. How rapidly does cerebral swelling follow trauma? Observations using an animal model and possible implications in infancy. Leg. Med. (Tokyo). 2009; 11 (Suppl. 1): S128–S131. https://doi.org/0.1016/j.legalmed.2009.02.001Byard R.W., Bhatia K.D., Reilly PL, Vink R. How rapidly does cerebral swelling follow trauma? Observations using an animal model and possible implications in infancy. Leg. Med. (Tokyo). 2009; 11 (Suppl. 1): S128–S131. https://doi.org/0.1016/j.legalmed.2009.02.001Liesemer K., Bratton S.L., Zebrack C.M. et al. Early posttraumatic seizures in moderate to severe pediatric traumatic brain injury: rates, risk factors, and clinical features. J. Neurotrauma. 2011; 28 (5): 755–762. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2010.1518Liesemer K., Bratton S.L., Zebrack C.M. et al. Early posttraumatic seizures in moderate to severe pediatric traumatic brain injury: rates, risk factors, and clinical features. J. Neurotrauma. 2011; 28 (5): 755–762. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2010.1518Han B.K., Towbin R.B., De Courten-Myers G. et al. Reversal sign on CT: effect of anoxic/ischemic cerebral injury in children. Am. J. Roentgenol. 1990; 154: 361–368. https://doi.org/10.2214/ajr.154.2.2105031Han B.K., Towbin R.B., De Courten-Myers G. et al. Reversal sign on CT: effect of anoxic/ischemic cerebral injury in children. Am. J. Roentgenol. 1990; 154: 361–368. https://doi.org/10.2214/ajr.154.2.2105031Duhaime A.C., Durham S. Traumatic brain injury in infants: the phenomenon of subdural hemorrhage with hemispheric hypodensity (“Big Black Brain”) Progress in Brain Research. 2007; 161: 293–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-6123(06)61020-0Duhaime A.C., Durham S. Traumatic brain injury in infants: the phenomenon of subdural hemorrhage with hemispheric hypodensity (“Big Black Brain”) Progress in Brain Research. 2007; 161: 293–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-6123(06)61020-0Di Muzio B., Baba Y. Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (adults and children). Reference article, Radiopaedia.org. https://doi.org/10.53347/rID-14025Di Muzio B., Baba Y. Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (adults and children). Reference article, Radiopaedia.org. https://doi.org/10.53347/rID-14025Ichord R.N., Naim M., Pollock A.N. et al. Hypoxicischemic injury complicates inflictedand accidental traumatic brain injury in young children: the role ofdiffusion-weighted imaging. J. Neurotrauma. 2007; 24 (1): 106–118. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2006.0087Ichord R.N., Naim M., Pollock A.N. et al. Hypoxicischemic injury complicates inflictedand accidental traumatic brain injury in young children: the role ofdiffusion-weighted imaging. J. Neurotrauma. 2007; 24 (1): 106–118. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2006.0087Kemp A.M., Stoodley N., Cobley C. et al. Apnoea and brain swelling in non-accidental head injury. Arch. Dis. Child. 2003; 88(6): 472–476. https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.88.6.472Kemp A.M., Stoodley N., Cobley C. et al. Apnoea and brain swelling in non-accidental head injury. Arch. Dis. Child. 2003; 88(6): 472–476. https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.88.6.472Maguire S., Pickerd N., Farewell D. et al. Which clinical features distinguish inflicted from non-inflicted brain injury? A systematic review. Archives of Disease in Childhood. 2009; 94(11): 860–867. https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.2008.150110Maguire S., Pickerd N., Farewell D. et al. Which clinical features distinguish inflicted from non-inflicted brain injury? A systematic review. Archives of Disease in Childhood. 2009; 94(11): 860–867. https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.2008.150110McKinney A.M., Thompson L.R., Truwit C.L. et al. Unilateral hypoxic-ischemic injury in young children from abusive head trauma, lacking craniocervicalvascular dissection or cord injury. Pediatr. Radiol. 2008; 38(2): 164–174. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00247-007-0673-0McKinney A.M., Thompson L.R., Truwit C.L. et al. Unilateral hypoxic-ischemic injury in young children from abusive head trauma, lacking craniocervicalvascular dissection or cord injury. Pediatr. Radiol. 2008; 38(2): 164–174. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00247-007-0673-0Donkin J.J., Nimmo A.J., Cernak I. et al. Substance P is associated with the development of brainedema and functional deficits after traumatic brain injury. J. Cerebral Blood Flow Metabolism. 2009; 29(8): 1388–1398. https://doi.org/10.1038/jcbfm.2009Donkin J.J., Nimmo A.J., Cernak I. et al. Substance P is associated with the development of brainedema and functional deficits after traumatic brain injury. J. Cerebral Blood Flow Metabolism. 2009; 29(8): 1388–1398. https://doi.org/10.1038/jcbfm.2009Duhaime A.C., Bilaniuk L., Zimmerman R. The big black brain: radiographic changes after severe inflicted head injury ininfancy. J. Neurotrauma. 1993; 10: S59.Duhaime A.C., Bilaniuk L., Zimmerman R. The big black brain: radiographic changes after severe inflicted head injury ininfancy. J. Neurotrauma. 1993; 10: S59.Marmarou A. A review of progress in understanding the pathophys-iology and treatment of brain edema. Neurosurg. Focus. 2007; 22 (5): E1. https://doi.org/10.3171/foc.2007.22.5.2Marmarou A. A review of progress in understanding the pathophys-iology and treatment of brain edema. Neurosurg. Focus. 2007; 22 (5): E1. https://doi.org/10.3171/foc.2007.22.5.2Luyet F.M., Feldman K.W., Knox B.L. The Big Black Brain: Subdural Hemorrhage with Hemispheric Swelling and Low Attenuation. J. Child Adol. Trauma. 2018; 11: 241–247. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-017-0132-5Luyet F.M., Feldman K.W., Knox B.L. The Big Black Brain: Subdural Hemorrhage with Hemispheric Swelling and Low Attenuation. J. Child Adol. Trauma. 2018; 11: 241–247. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-017-0132-5Parizel P.M., Makkat S., Jorens P.G. et al. Brainstem hemorrhage in descending transtentorial herniation (Duret hemorrhage). Intensive Care Med. 2002; 28 (1): 85–88. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-001-1160-yParizel P.M., Makkat S., Jorens P.G. et al. Brainstem hemorrhage in descending transtentorial herniation (Duret hemorrhage). Intensive Care Med. 2002; 28 (1): 85–88. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-001-1160-yGiven C.A. 2nd, Burdette J.H., Elster A.D., Williams D.W. 3rd. Pseudo-subarachnoid hemorrhage: a potential imaging pitfall associated with diffuse cerebral edema. Am. J. Neuroradiol. 2003; 24 (2): 254–256.Given C.A. 2nd, Burdette J.H., Elster A.D., Williams D.W. 3rd. Pseudo-subarachnoid hemorrhage: a potential imaging pitfall associated with diffuse cerebral edema. Am. J. Neuroradiol. 2003; 24 (2): 254–256.Schievink W.I. Spontaneous dissection of the carotid and vertebral arteries. N. Engl. J. Med. 2001; 344 (12): 898–906. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM200103223441206Schievink W.I. Spontaneous dissection of the carotid and vertebral arteries. N. Engl. J. Med. 2001; 344 (12): 898–906. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM200103223441206Chen C.C., Chang P.C., Shy C.G. et al. CT angiography and MR angiography in the evaluation of carotid cavernous sinus fistula prior to embolization: a comparison of techniques. Am. J. Neuroradiol. 2005; 26 (9): 2349–2356.Chen C.C., Chang P.C., Shy C.G. et al. CT angiography and MR angiography in the evaluation of carotid cavernous sinus fistula prior to embolization: a comparison of techniques. Am. J. Neuroradiol. 2005; 26 (9): 2349–2356.Liang W., Xiaofeng Y., Weiguo L. et al. Traumatic carotid cavernous fistula accompanying basilar skull fracture: a study on the incidence of traumatic carotid cavernous fistula in the patients with basilar skull fracture and the prognostic analysis about traumatic carotid cavernous fistula. J. Trauma. 2007; 63 (5): 1014–20. https://doi.org/10.1097/TA.0b013e318154c9fbLiang W., Xiaofeng Y., Weiguo L. et al. Traumatic carotid cavernous fistula accompanying basilar skull fracture: a study on the incidence of traumatic carotid cavernous fistula in the patients with basilar skull fracture and the prognostic analysis about traumatic carotid cavernous fistula. J. Trauma. 2007; 63 (5): 1014–20. https://doi.org/10.1097/TA.0b013e318154c9fbLee J.Y., Jung C., Ihn Y.K. et al. Multidetector CT angiography in the diagnosis and classification of carotidcavernous fistula. Clin. Radiol. 2016; 71 (1): e64–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crad.2015.10.018Lee J.Y., Jung C., Ihn Y.K. et al. Multidetector CT angiography in the diagnosis and classification of carotidcavernous fistula. Clin. Radiol. 2016; 71 (1): e64–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crad.2015.10.018Larson P.S., Reisner A., Morassutti D.J. et al. Traumatic intracranial aneurysms. Neurosurg. Focus. 2000; 8 (1): e4. https://doi.org/10.3171/foc.2000.8.1.1829Larson P.S., Reisner A., Morassutti D.J. et al. Traumatic intracranial aneurysms. Neurosurg. Focus. 2000; 8 (1): e4. https://doi.org/10.3171/foc.2000.8.1.1829Mao Z., Wang N., Hussain M. et al. Traumatic intracranial aneurysms due to blunt brain injury – a single center experience. Acta Neurochir. 2012; 154 (12): 2187–2193. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00701-012-1487-xMao Z., Wang N., Hussain M. et al. Traumatic intracranial aneurysms due to blunt brain injury – a single center experience. Acta Neurochir. 2012; 154 (12): 2187–2193. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00701-012-1487-x

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.